BIO Cram Notes 1

The series of cram notes will focus on topics that are high yield and will for sure show up on the next DAT.

The following assumptions will give rise to a population that is at Hardy Weinberg equilibrium, and following these assumptions the genotype frequencies can be predicted for; using 2 sets of equations with 2 alleles of the same gene- -> p=A, q= a --> AA, Aa, aa 1. p+q=1 2. p^2+2pq+q^2=1

• p is dominant allele of a genotype, the frequency of allele p= 1-q

• q is recessive allele of a genotype, the frequency of allele q=1-p

• p^2= the genotypic frequency of homozygous dominant genotype in the population

• q^2= the genotypic frequency of homozygous recessive genotype in the population

• 2pq= the genotypic frequency of heterozygous genotype in the population

There are four types of innate or instinct behaviours;

• instincts

• reflexes

• fixed action patterns

• imprinting

There are three types of learned behaviors,

1. classical conditioning

2. operant conditioning

3. associative learning is a type of learning based on one's own experiences
   

• sensitization repeated association of a stimulus with behavior amplifies the response.

• habituation is an associative learning where upon observing a stimulus repeatedly the response decreases due to prolonged or repeated incidences.

• observational learning through observing and understanding the bahaviors of other animals to learn the behavior, without any reinforcements

• insight understanding the relationship of various parts of the problem that ensues all-of-a-sudden learning, with no prior engagements, and no prior learning. an animal in a new situation that uses understanding to alleviate a problem

• spatial learning associating a response with a location

• X-linked traits: how to tell if its X-linked recessive or dominant If there are only male individuals affected over generations then its Xlinked recessive If there are both female and some males affected it will be X linked dominant Dominant traits- never skips a generation, vertical pattern of inheritance. Recessive traits-skip generations, show a horizontal pattern of inheritance, amongst only one line of generation, and then disappears.

• Everything before Nematoda and Rotifera is acoelomate (lack a coelom). Everything after Nematoda and Rotifera is coelomate (contains a coelom). Nematoda and Rotifera are considered pseudocoelomates (‘fake’ coelomate). Pseudocoelom is a body cavity that does not contain a full peritoneum. This pseudocoelom helps with motility – they use the pseudocoelom as a hydrostatic skeleton. A hydroskeleton provides rigidity through fluid pressure. Capacitation: Sperm must mature while inside the female reproductive tract, before they are able to fertilize an egg. This process occurs over several hours and includes changes in membrane lipids, proteins and permeability to calcium